roper raptor disease diagnosis and management is a critical part in maintaining a healthy bird. You may trap a bird that is in poor health or infected and not have it manifest the symptoms until later. Or you may have a bird that catches something either from prey, from a food source, or from the general environment. Sometimes a bird has a simple infection and not a complex disease. Many birds have eaten sharp bones that have nicked the skin around the mouth. If this inflames or becomes infected, it may have some appearance to Frounce, yet require a different treatment.
Symptoms of disease that warrant a veterinarian's opinion are diarrhea, discolored mutes, discharge from the nares, any off smell, or off behavior. To judge any "off smells", put your bird in her hawk box and place that in a small enclosure such as a bathroom or the car. If after a few hours you can smell a strong smell, this is a sign of abnormal mutes or castings.
Diarrhea is a symptom of many diseases and knowing what your bird's mutes look like for typical meals and various foods will help you identify atypical mutes. Red or black diarrhea indicates digestive problems. Red diarrhea may indicate bleeding from the lower digestive tract. Black diarrhea may indicate bleeding from the upper digestive system. Green diarrhea indicates problems with the liver, the green reflecting the bile that is being passed through. A small greenish mute does not indicate liver problems, but rather an empty crop, the green again reflecting the bile production. Just because the mutes do not look as you expect them to, that alone is not usually evidence that there are significant problems. Watch your bird's behavior as well to determine what is happening.
To take a fecal sample, lay wax paper down around your bird's perch, or line the inside of her hawk box with wax paper and place her inside. Be aware that the mutes will not dry normally and will slide all over, so either line the edges with paper towels or do not move the box. Once a few samples are available, these can be placed into a ziploc bag for the veterinarian. The point is to not let them dry. Fresh samples are best, and likely some will be available at the office, but having back-ups on hand makes sure you will have samples.
Your veterinarian will do a fecal float with the material you provide. Some very knowledgeable falconers and rehabilitators may decide to self-diagnose. You will need a microscope that can magnify 10x and 40x, slides and coverslips, fecal floatation solution (such as Fecasol), and pictures of the commonly seen parasites to compare against what you see through the microscope. A good guide on how to perform a fecal float and what to look for in the field can be found here: http://www.scfalconry.com/float.html
Another good reference on how to do your own fecal smears: http://www.finchaviary.com/Maintenance/FecalSmear.htm
Keep in mind that the bird is a system. Just because something is at a low level of infection (i.e. round worms), they are taking energy away from the bird preventing her from using that energy to fly harder, build muscle, or moult. The bird may feel this and feel under-equipped to hunt well. The worms themselves are also dumping toxins back into the bird's system and weakening her defenses against other invaders.
Raptor Diseases
ApoplexyApoplexy is marked by an uncontrollable jerking or contraction of the muscles. Typical in freshly-trapped small Accipiters such as Sharp-Shins and Cooper's hawks, but also can occur in captive birds.
Treatment is usually placing the bird in a cool, dark place and administering a sugar-water substance - Gatorade, Pedialyte, and even orange or cherry juice can be used to try to balance the hawk's electrolytes. Three or four eye-droppers full of flat cola every two hours will also start to treat the condition.
Aspergillosis
Aspergillosis, or Asper, is a fungal infection and the most lethal type of infection. This can be of two forms. Nodular asper attacks the air sacs, lungs, and trachea. Systemic asper attacks the kidneys, liver, or other organs. The fungus that causes asper, Aspergillus fumigates, is found everywhere except the frozen arctic and Antarctic regions; birds are constantly exposed to it. Elevated levels will be found in areas where there is carpet, wet or damp substances, or materials that promote the growth of fungus such as burlap, hay, or straw. Fecal matter and dead vegetation (straw and shavings) should be kept to a minimum in any aviary enclosure. To contract the disease the bird usually has a depressed immune system either from another disease, poor health, extended antibiotic usage, or poor nutrition. Arctic birds, such as the Gyrfalcon, are more susceptible to Asper than some other species (Goshawks and Golden Eagles, particularly). The earliest sign of asper is a slight gurgling behind the breathing or a slight hoarseness behind any voice. Asper's hallmarks are difficulty breathing, extreme thirst, easily over-exerted and low in energy, food flicking or difficulty eating, weight loss or poor appetite, voice change, and a general ruffled appearance. Sometimes there is a stinky black fluid thrown up by the bird. Despite the bird's extreme thirst, dehydration occurs. This can be clinically confirmed by high white blood cell counts, tracheal cultures, ELIZA test, and x-rays.
The best treatment for asper is prevention. Although birds may recover, this is a highly problematic disease to treat. Veterinarians may prescribe AmphotericinB with Clotrimazol, Itraconazol, Fluconizole, Voriconazole, Ancoban, Flucytosine, Sporanox, or Intracon (a note to be careful in handling AmphotericinB as it can cause renal problems in humans). A nebulizer with 2cc clotrimazole with 1cc sterile water or clotrimazole 10mg/ml in polyethylene glycol (Lotrimin solution) for 30 - 60 minutes for 5 days is one modern treatment. Another favored treatment is Terbinafine once a day for 60 days. Continuing to gently exercise the bird, but not to the point of being winded, may help to clear out the lungs and keep the lymphatic system moving. Birds treated for Asper should be monitored for 6 months to verify that the bird has completely overcome the infection and is not going to relapse.
A bird can succumb to Asper in anywhere from 2 days to a week. Only 25% of patients will recover.
http://www.intfalconer.com/back_issues/9article.html
http://www.avianbiotech.com/diseases/Aspergillosis.htm
http://www.aspergillus.org.uk/indexhome.htm?secure/veterinary/AspAvian-refs.html~main
Blockage
Although not a disease, this may be mistaken for one. Some birds are quite greedy and will manage to swallow more than they should. My own Red-Tail can swallow an entire rabbit front leg from toenails to shoulder blade without bothering to strip the meat off of it. These birds must be watched carefully should they manage to swallow large connected segments like this to ensure they put over the crop correctly passing food on through, and cast appropriately. Care should be taken to not feed on top of a difficult crop of food like this.
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An x-ray of an eagle that was discovered to have a deer rib lodged in her crop.
We had an eagle that would wheeze if exercised (like - caught), but seemed ok otherwise. We saw something strange in the xray but couldn't figure out what it was. One day we had him on the table, and the vet felt a strange lump on the back of his neck and saw that something was breaking through the skin. He pulled on it and out came a deer rib! Image courtesy of Chris Maack and the Bird Treatment & Learning Center. |
Bumblefoot
Bumblefoot is a disease of the bottom of the feet caused by any number of different types of bacteria. Birds have an amazing ability to heal their skin, but unfortunately it can end up encapsulating bacteria and allow the colony to continue producing. In the case of Bumblefoot, the bird has sustained an injury, however small, to the bottom of the foot and bacteria has been allowed to take hold. The skin may continue to heal around this colony. It begins as a small, hardened corn which develops into a fevered hot spot or open sore. Other symptoms are a bird who lays down or won't put weight onto the feet.
Like Asper, the best treatment is prevention. The main causes are from injury (i.e. improper furniture design or enclosure injuries or from prey), pershing surfaces (i.e. improper surfaces or design), poor hygiene, inactivity, obesity, and poor diet (particularly an insufficient amount of Vitamin A). Having proper perching surfaces, varied surfaces, and varied diameters of perches is the best maintenance. Keeping perching surfaces clean is important - this means clean from mutes as well as cleansing agents which may irritate the skin. Proper nutrition is key. Soaking or scrubbing the hawk's feet once a week or if soiled helps to prevent dirt and blood from becoming encrusted. Keeping the skin under the talon where it meets the talon clean is another good step. Any injury to the bottom of the foot can allow bacteria to take hold.
Using a salve of 1 part Anhydrous Lanolin mixed with 1 part Dermaclense or an antibiotic ointment like Corona (very tiny amounts massaged in FULLY) can quickly revert any small problem. A slightly more progressed case can use Preparation-H massaged into the foot (NOTE: Canadian falconers are at a distinct advantage as their version of Preparation-H has higher levels of active ingredients than the US version). More serious cases can require surgery. Advanced cases of bumblefoot are very difficult to cure.
Treatment beyond topical and supplemental Vitamin A may consist of Piperacillin or Ceftazidine. Treatment for extreme (Grade V) may require amputation or euthanasia as the bacteria will actually eat the bone.
Proper foot maintenance
Candidiasis
Yeast infection. Symptoms include plaques in the mouth (easily mistaken for frounce, capillaria, or Vitamin A deficiency), lack of appetite, vomiting, dehydration, and depression. Treated with Nystatin, Fluconazole, Itraconazole.
Capillaria
Capillaria is also called Small Roundworms. These roundworms, Capillaria amulata, embed themselves in the lining of the esophagus, crop, or small intestine. Typically, a very low level of these is seen. As they are very difficult to get rid of, unless it poses a problem to the bird's health, the low levels of infestation are acceptable. Some of the marks of this disease are depression, weakness, weight loss, diarrhea, "sitting," coughing, gasping, anemia, excessive salivation, and bad breath. Note that there are two manifestations, one of which looks very much like frounce.
There is some work being done in Europe to identify a successful course of treatment. This involves Thiabendazole, but is lengthy, stressful for the bird, and not guaranteed. Ivermectin is a preferred treatment in a single dose of about 0.2mg/kg of body weight, but this is not always effective. Panacur or Levamasole may also be used to address it. Many vets will advise to leave it alone if there is only a very low level present as it is almost always present even in a healthy bird's system.
Chlamydiosis or Avian Chlamydia
Chlamydiosis is also called Avian Chlamydia and is very common in parrots, sometimes called parrot fever. It is caused by an intercellular bacterium called Chlamydophilia psittaci. Symptoms vary from no symptoms with a latent bacteria for months to a sudden death. Some typical symptoms are inflammation of the eye (both the conjunctiva and the cornea), inflamation of the nasal membranes, and shortness of breath. Mutes may be yellowish-green or watery-gray. Can attack the air sacs, the liver, heart, spleen, or brain.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2241695&dopt=Abstract
http://www.addl.purdue.edu/newsletters/2003/Fall/avchlamid.htm
Coccidiosis
Coccidiosis is a disease of the digestive system caused by a parasitic protozoan. This protozoan appears in two forms, Isospora and Eimeria. Isospora is the form found in Falconiformes and Strigiformes. These develop inside the cells that line the intestinal tract. As they take over more and more cells, the cells begin leaking preventing the bird from absorbing nutrients or liquid. This loss of blood and fluid is what causes the reddish (or red spotty) diarrhea that marks this disease. The loss of blood and fluids can be fatal. Merlins can be particularly susceptible to this and will rapidly decline.
Coccidiosis is usually marked by diarrhea, dehydration, weight loss or odd fluctuations in weight, lethargy, flecks of red in the mutes, food flicking, foul smelling castings, and poor appetite. The flecks of red in the mutes are blood spots, but sometimes the flecks are small enough to give the mute an overall pink color. If the mutes have turned completely black, then there is a significant amount of blood being passed through the tract and treatment at this stage is less effective. The castings are slimy as though greasy or coated in petroleum jelly, and may be brown and have a different smell. If reviewing your own fecal slides, this can be mistaken for Round worms. Note that these are much smaller than Ascarid eggs.
This is typically treated with antibiotics such as Baycox, Albon (50 mg/kg), or Appertex (clazurilum). Once treatment has concluded, Benni-Bac (Avian Lactobacillus) may be a good idea to supplement with as the good system bacteria has also been reduced.
http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v054n04/p0500-p0509.pdf
http://www.jwildlifedis.org/cgi/reprint/2/2/20.pdf
Cramp (also called Sprattling)
Cramp affects nestling raptors that get chilled. The chick cannot regulate its body temperature, and therefore is dependent on its environment (parent or incubator) for proper warmth. When the chick gets too cold, the intestinal gut flora dies and the chick's digestive process begins to fail. If the chick still has gut motility, then food will pass through almost undigested. If there is no gut motility, then the food sits in the chick and spoils. Chilling causes muscle contractions and spasms in an attempt to warm the body. This inhibits their ability to process calcium.
Cramp is prevented by using a brooder box, heat lamp, or heating pad. Calcium is sometimes given as a treatment, but if the bird cannot process it, it will not help.
Dehydration
Although not a disease, dehydration is a common symptom and needs to be identified. One way is by pulling the skin of the upper leg away from the body and noting if it remains tented or returns to the normal shape. Skin that remains pinched and tented is typical of a dehydrated animal. You can also open teh mouth to see fi there is stringy liquid across the back of the bird's mouth. If there is, then the bird is dehydrated.
Escherichia Coli or E. coli
E. coli is typically passed from infected birds through mutes and fecal matter. Typical symptoms include ruffled appearance and listlessness, although some birds display no symptoms.
Treatments include antibiotics such as Kanamycin or Gentamycin.
http://www.avianbiotech.com/Diseases/ecoli.htm
Fluke or flat worms (Trematodes)
Flukes are a very common parasite occurring in many to most wild raptors and usually non-pathogenic.
Many believe that treating flukes is not necessary if the level of the fluke infestation is not harming the animal (only one or two per slide). Through normal hunting and eating of prey there will likely be a reinfestation. However, if the level of infestation is beyond normal, Praziquintel has been used to successfully treat flukes.
French Moult
In domestic avian husbandry, almost any feather abnormalities or moult is called a French Moult. This could be the bird moulting at the wrong time of year, moulting twice in a summer, or feathers coming in that are misshapen. The causes of this can be nutrition, environmental, depressed immune system, or infectious, most commonly Polyomavirus. An improper moult in raptors has recently signaled the potential of West Nile Virus as misshapen or pinched feathers are now being seen after a bird recovers from a WNV infection.
Frounce (or Avian Trichomoniasis)
Frounce is a highly contagious yeast infection of the digestive tract. Frounce is caused by a protozoan called Trichomonas which is frequently present in the crops of pigeons. For this reason, pigeon heads and crops are generally not fed to raptors. The typical signs of frounce are white spots in the mouth or crop, often described as "cheesy" or "white plaques." These alone are not enough to diagnose frounce as plaques could be candidiosis, capillaria, or even Vitamin A deficiency, but it is one hallmark of the disease. Other signs are head flicking, difficulty breathing, or even regurgitation of food. There is a particular smell to frounce. Green mutes may also appear. A bird may suddenly appear to be in yarak, even without other changes. A swab and wet prep on a slide will show protozoans.
Flagyl, Spartrix, Metronidazole, Entramin, Emtryl (encourages the lesions to drop off), or Carnidazole (or, less preferred, Enheptin) are typically prescribed for this. One common treatment now is to treat the bird with 25 - 50 mg/Kg of Metronidazole twice a day for 7 - 10 days and swab the frounce areas with a dilute Betadine or Nolvasan solution to try to remove some of the plaques. A single 250 mg tablet can be dissolved in 10 cc water. A 600 g bird can then be given 1 cc per day of this mixture. Another approach is to, basically, address the infection with a single dosage of 125 mg per kg of bird weight. The infection plaques will die and expose raw skin that will need to be protected from any other infection. Plaques in the throat may necessitate smaller bites or food more easily swallowed.
Birds who are untreated usually succumb to Frounce within 7 - 10 days. Great Horned Owls and Barred Owls appear to be very susceptible to this. Peregrines are thought to be less susceptible to this, so a Peregrine showing frounce symptoms should also be investigated for diseases which may give similar symptoms such as Capillaria.
Becky Brunotte recently had a particularly bad encounter with Frounce in her bird. Her comments on the end of the ordeal: "I took the bird in to see the vet today because the frounce had gotten so large it was shutting off her air passage and she couldn't eat again. The vet removed the frounce pellet and the good news was that the frounce hadn't damaged her sinuses. But the bad news is that the frounce ate away one of the bones that runs on each side of the glottis. It was embedded in the frounce pellet. The frounce is out, but to be safe I'll treat her one more time with Spartrix."
She was kind enough to allow me to use the picture of the frounce pellet. You can barely make out the hyoid bone in this pellet. The hyoid in the bird is a Y shape. It is the attachment site for throat and tongue muscles allowing control of swallowing. The bird will function normally after is retrains its muscles to function without that part of the hyoid.
Gapeworms
Gapeworms are caused by Syngamus trachea which attach themselves to the inner lining of the trachea. Generally death is quick as the worms cause asphyxiation. Symptoms are coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath.
Gapeworm photos http://www.surrey.ac.uk/~cus1fb/fowl/gapeworm.html
Gapeworms are not easily treated, but Thiabendazole or Panacur may be prescribed.
Gout
Gout is caused by kidney problems which leaves excess uric acid in the system that cannot be cleaned out. This is typically seen as a swelling in the foot and joints (distinguishable from Bumblefoot), but internal organs sustain damage as the acid deposits on their surfaces.
Nutritional deficiencies are what lead to this. Ensure you are not over feeding vitamins and that you are balancing the food sources. A properly hydrated bird can also stave off this disease longer than a dehydrated bird can as the hydration better allows the bird to flush her system.
Haemoproteus
Haemoproteus is a blood infection spread by flat flies. Pigeons and doves are frequently infected with low levels, but commercial flocks are not typically seen with infection.
http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/200105.htm
Herpes (or Avian Herpes)
There are three closely related viruses which cause avian herpes. One strain causes Pacheco's Disease, one strain causes Marek's disease, and the rest fall into the category of "other". Birds will pass this virus through their mutes and dander.
Avian herpes causes inflammations, swellings, bleeding of the liver, kidneys, and spleen, and ultimately death. Since there are several different strains, there are several different clinical signs. The progression is slow and some signs of it are tremors, seizures, swellings, and general lethargy. Fecals may be green with yellow or orange urates.
Although this has been treated successfully with Acyclovir injections, the prognosis for recovery is not good.
Impaction
Impaction of the crop, gizzard, or stomach is fairly uncommon. Flooring materials such as wood shavings or sand can be ingested and impact in the bird. Plenty of water will help many things either move through the system or be cast back up. Symptoms are usually that the bird acts active, yet shows no signs of interest in food. The impaction can usually be felt through palpation. If the bird is able to cast up the impaction material, then the system will usually resume normal functionality. Plenty of hydration, and small amounts of very tiny tidbits can sustain a bird through this. Take care not to give any food containing casting material.
Lead poisoning
Lead poisoning causes nervous system damage and digestive system problems. Symptoms are shaking, weakness, nervous system oddities, brown diarrhea (chocolate milk-like) may occur, high blood pressure, and renal failure. A quick way to diagnose is by drawing the blood and viewing under a black light - the compound created by the presence of lead in the system will cause the blood to fluoresce. More extensive tests can be done for a definitive diagnosis and analysis of the level of poisoning. X-rays will show any lead bodies in the bird.
This necessitates a veterinary visit if your bird has consumed any lead, such as lead shot. The vet will normally treat with a chelating agent to help prevent the lead from entering the system. Peanut butter or Metamucil may be administered to speed the lead through the GI tract.
Louse or Lice
An external parasite looking almost like a white worm, but with legs. These insects bite the bird and cause irritation. Lice tend to crawl around the vent area and lay eggs along the feather shafts. Treat by spraying the bird with a Pyrethrin spray (like 8-in-1's Ultra-Care with 0.03% Pyrethrins, 0.3% Piperonyl butoxide). If you cannot spray the bird safely, spray a paper towel and rub that along the bird.
Poultry Lice http://ohioline.osu.edu/vme-fact/0018.html
Lice Drawing http://www.thefreedictionary.com/bird+louse
Maggots
Eyass birds are sometimes infested with maggots, typically in the head. This can be seen on very young birds as a grey dot at the top of their skull.
Treatment for this can be Vaseline (or other petroleum based product such as a chapstick) rubbed onto the top of the skull, or a solution of equal parts vinegar and water. The petroleum will suffocate the maggots and the solution will alter the pH of the ear canal forcing them to back out of the ear.
Maggots can be fatal to an eyass.
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Faint and difficult to see here, but this eyass goshawk has a tiny grey dot at the top of his head. This is the maggot infestation just under the skin. |
Malaria
Transmitted primarily by mosquitos, this is marked by green diarrhea.
Metabolic Bone Disease MBD
A very sad disease and entirely preventable through proper nutrition. MBD comes on in immature, growing birds who are not receiving enough calcium or Vitamin D3. Their bones are not calcifying, break very easily, and do not show up as dense calcified bones on radiographs. The bone breaks are extremely painful to the bird. Treat with a proper diet with the Calcium:Phosphorus ratio of 1.5:1, CaGluconate IV, and supportive care.
Newcastle Disease
A highly contagious viral disease transmitted through eating diseased birds or through infected water, food, equipment, or fecal matter. The disease attacks the nervous system with symptoms like twitching, shivering, convulsions, twisting of the neck, or paralysis. Sight may be impaired and the bird may have difficulty with breathing or coughing. Most telling is the greenish mutes from infected birds. There is no effective treatment other than supportive measures, but death is usually sudden. Controlling the virus is key - all equipment should be disinfected, premises should be disinfected, and infected animals must be destroyed.
This is very rare in North America.
http://www.oie.int/eng/maladies/fiches/a_A160.htm
Parasites
External parasites generally only affect the plumage, and most particularly they tend to damage the white areas of feathers. The parasites can cause the bird to look ruffled or roughen the edges of feathers. This can make her feathers less effective, but moreover, irritate the bird or transmit diseases. Feather lice tend to focus on the lighter portions of feather. Because of this albino or leukistic birds may be in worse shape than their darker counterparts.
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The feather should be smooth edged. Here the lighter portions have been eaten away by feather lice causing this feather to have "steps" along the edges. |
External parasites such as feather lice and hippoboscids are common. Hippoboscids have been described as looking like flying ticks. These can be treated with a topical treatment of 2% Sevin powder or a 0.03% Pyrethrins, 0.3% Piperonyl butoxide spray - any pet store caged bird spray will likely work. Apply once starting at the neck and working your way down, spray only lightly the beak, then reapply 7 days later. If you cannot spray the bird safely, spray a paper towel and rub that along the bird.
http://delta-intkey.com/britin/dip/www/hippobos.htm
Pneumonia
Pneumonia is often found as a secondary disease to Asper. It has many primary causes including bacterial and viral.
Proper treatment for bacterial pneumonia is antibiotics, stress reduction, good food, and dark, quiet space. Viral pneumonia will require a similar regimen except instead of antibiotics aimed at the viral pneumonia, Baytril (or other antibiotics) is typically prescribed to prevent secondary bacterial infections.
Poisoning
There are many different types of poisons that raptors can be affected by.
Organophosphate There are over 36 different organophosphates in thousands of products in the US. Acute cases are not seen in live birds as these birds die immediately, typically by the hundreds. Chronic cases will be seen. Symptoms of this are the typical "sick bird," green mutes, twisted neck, laying down, and seizures. Immediately treat with Atropine (0.02 mg/kg), toxiban, and supportive treatment. If there are seizures, treat with Valium.
Carbamate These act like organophosphates, although there is a better chance of survival as carbamate bonds are slowly reversable. Treat with Atropine (0.02 mg/kg) and supportive care.
Organochlorides These are rarely seen in the US as organochloride use is not permitted here. However as they are still produced here and there may be private amounts still in storage, this could be seen. Treatment is supportive, but rarely is effective.
Metaldehyde This is the ingredient found in slug and snail bait and is most common in household pets. Almost no treatment is effective and euthanasia should be considered.
Rodenticides Rarely seen except in the occassional Barn Owl. This is usually easy to diagnose due to the bleeding into the chest cavity. Poking a needle into the chest and watching for the blood to seep out is a sign of this type of poisoning. Treatment is to induce vomiting and treat with Vitamin K for 1 - 6 weeks. If the blood seepage into the chest cavity is extensive, pressure may need to be released.
Lead See above listing for Lead Poisoning.
Pox (also called Avian Pox)
This slow spreading viral disease is easily transmitted through a number of vectors including contact with infected individuals, ingestion of infected individuals, and even contact with surfaces that infected individuals touched - it can be spread more quickly between individuals by mosquitoes. Be very careful if an infected bird has touched a mews, perch, or glove as these will need to be disinfected before another bird can touch them. The most common form causes warty bumps to appear on the cere, legs, mouth, and even around the eyes and the upper respiratory system. Eventually these growths will cause difficulty breathing or seeing. The three common strains which have been identified are fowl pox, pigeon pox, and canary pox.
Pox must be treated topically and a diluted mixture of Betadine is considered effective. Soaking or swabbing the affected areas with a cotton ball or Q-tip soaked in the solution and then dressing the area with an antibiotic balm such as Neosporin is an effective treatment for mild cases. More serious cases may require Betadine soaks, vigorous scrubs, and oral Clindamycin. A healthy diet and stress reduction are also necessary. More extensive cases may necessitate treatment by curette or cauterization.
http://www.michigan.gov/dnr/0,1607,7-153-10370_12150_12220-26362--,00.html
http://www.dvrconline.org/avianpox.html
Rickets
Primarily seen in young birds who are still building bone mass, this is caused by a deficiency in Vitamin D, Calcium, or Phosphorous. In breeders it will cause poor quality egg shells. Young birds with rickets walk with stiff legs, are slow to grow and have enlargements at the ends of long bones. Eventually they will develop bent or broken bones, seizures, heart disorders, and tetany. The worst cases end in paralysis and death.
A low calcium, high Phosphorous diet that lacks proper amounts of Vitamin D creates a state known as Hypervitiminosis D. Since birds can synthesize Vitamin D from sunlight and various precursors, birds with proper amounts of sunlight are far less likely to be as sensitive to the diet. Birds who do not receive the proper amount of sunlight will be more sensitive to not receiving the proper balanced diet. The stress here is balanced. A diet that is too high in Vitamin D will cause calcification of the organs.
Round worms or Ascarids
Roundworms are a parasitic infestation of the digestive system by a nematode, Ascarida galli. Typical signs of this disease are diarrhea, weight loss, and sometimes foul smelling mutes. There are many ways that a bird can get roundworms, and most birds in the wild have at least a low level infestation. If you are out hunting with your bird the chances are that it is exposed to these, either through rabbits or birds it is catching. After you trap and after you have ended the hunting season, it's a good idea to get to your vet for a check-up and have a fecal done to ensure your bird is not carrying worms. These are easily treated, and can cause a lot of problems from general condition and malaise at hunting to delaying a moult. The worms are sometimes found in the bird's mutes or castings. If reviewing your own fecal slides, this can be mistaken for Coccidia. Note that these are much bigger than Coccidia.
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A roundworm in a mute and in a casting |
Roundworms are treated with Ivermectin, Panacur, Piperazinel, Piperazine, Thiabendazole, levamasole, or Nemex.
Seizures
Seizures are an affliction of the nervous system, although the initial cause may be from other sources such as metabolism.
Seizures are best dealt with by placing the bird in a cool, dark place and quickly getting them to a vet.
Sour crop (also known as Crop Stasis)
Sour crop is a bacterial infection of the digestive system. A bird does not put over a crop into her stomach in a timely manner. The food that remains in the crop is warm and not treated with the stomach acids, so as it sits there the bacteria grows.
It can be caused by overfeeding, dehydration, improper feeding methods, rotten food, parasitic infections, ingestion of petroleum products, crop burns, crop lacerations, and even high temperatures or bright lights. It is marked by regurgitation of the crop contents, foul smelling breath or castings, loss of appetite, but increase in thirst.
Birds that are sick, weak, or stressed are less likely to be able to handle an over-full crop and therefore more likely to develop sour crop.
Sour crop can be treated with Pepto Bismal and Pedialyte or other rehydrating liquid If there is no improvement within 8 hours, a veterinarian is required. This is an emergency requiring veterinary assistance. Treatment routine may include emptying the crop, flushing with sterile water, and treatment with an antibiotic.
http://www.cagenbird.com/crop_prob.htm
Stargazing (sometimes called Twirling or Ataxia)
Stargazing is an affliction of the nervous system stemming from nutritional deficiencies (primarily Vitamin B1), metabolic problems, or poor management. The nutritional deficiencies themselves may be stemming from another disease or affliction. Typically the muscles to the sides of the neck will be contracting causing a twitching and twisting if they contract singly, or pulling the head directly back pointing the beak to the sky if they contract together.
Stargazing's effects can be reversed with sunlight and Vitamin B1 (thiamine), although if another disease is causing the bird to not create or process vitamins, then that must be identified. Frequently a poor diet consisting solely of fish or organ meats will cause this. Birds fed fish must be considered for thiamine supplements, especially if the fish is not absolutely fresh.
Similar symptoms to Stargazing will be seen in birds with head trauma. This is typically referred to as Torticollis where the bird displays the "upside-down" head posture with some amount of spasm or twitching. Some of these may be treatable, but others are irreversible effects of trauma. Seizures should be treated with Valium.
Tapeworms
Tapeworms are a parasitic infestation of the digestive system. Symptoms include diarrhea, weight loss, and general malaise. If worms are seen in the mutes and they are moving, then they are more likely to be tapeworms. Roundworms are not usually alive when they pass through the bird. Tapeworm segments tend to stand straight up when they pass through appearing like tiny grains of rice or cucumber seeds in the mute.
Tapeworms are typically treated with Droncit, hexachlorophene, or Butynorate.
Torticollis (sometimes called Wry Neck)
Torticollis is typically a symptom of another disease. It is an affliction of the nervous system stemming from a variety of problems including trauma to the head, heat stroke causing nerve damage, West Nile Virus, or a variety of other diseases and shows similar symptoms to Stargazing in that the head is held in an odd position. Unlike Stargazing, the head may be twisted forward and bent up as if looking forward, but upside-down. Other behaviors may include walking in circles instead of a straight line.
The effects of Torticollis can be lessened with Metacam (meloxicam), although there are many irreversible forms of this.
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Torticollis in a Coopers' Hawk - on the left is before treatment and on the right is after being treated with Metacam (meloxicam).
Photo courtesy of Linda Huff. |
Tuberculosis
Avian tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium avium, which can infect people with supressed immunities. The tuberculosis granulomas can infect the gastrointestinal tract, liver, or spleen and cause white plaques which may be visible on x-rays, otherwise the organ would have to be aspirated to detect. Other symptoms are elevated white blood cell count and increased liver enxymes. Although this can be treated with Banacol, it is not highly successful.
West Nile Virus
West Nile Virus is a disease spread by mosquitoes. Some falconers are able to screen in their mews thereby reducing the mosquito population that is able to get to their hawks. Others have vaccinated their hawks with the equine vaccine.
The symptoms of this disease are loss of interest in food, weight loss, listlessness, weakness, fever, sleeping and, in highly progressed cases, tremors or seizures. Also frequently seen are squinting (one or both eyes), head tilt, staggering, shuffling, inability to focus, nasal discharge, voice change (due to the paralysis setting in the throat), and spookiness. Absolute diagnosis is through a serology panel.
One result of WNV that I have not seen in conventional literature is malformed feathers in the moult after recovery from a WNV infection. This photo was taken by another falconer who noticed the malformed feathers growing in on his bird.
The feather on the left was moulted normally prior to contracting West Nile Virus. The feather on the right was dropped shortly after growing in. The feather on the right is substantially shorter than the normal feather and the shaft is warped and twisted.
Feathers courtesy of Ron Kearney.
There is no one identified procedure for guaranteed recovery. General care is fluids, warmth, and good nutrition as well as non-steroidal anti-inflammatories such as Metacam, Meloxicam, Banamine, or Celebrex. Vitamin B1 is sometimes also given to help support the bird's immune system. Necropsy of kidney or brain tissues will confirm the virus.
http://www.avianbiotech.com/Diseases/westnile.htm
West Nile Virus Map http://westnilemaps.usgs.gov/us_bird.html
Wingtip Edema
Also known as Dry Gangrene Syndrome. Normally seen in young (less than 2 years old) desert climate birds such as Harris' Hawks being tethered at flight weight in cold weather (not necessarily freezing). It is believed to be a circulatory disorder. Although exact causes are not known, there is a direct correlation with low weight, low amounts of exercise, and cold temperatures. There is also a theory that these desert birds are being over-hydrated through their food source and are not able to properly flush that amount of water from their system under these circumstances.
Most commonly seen in the UK, the birds display a significant swelling at the wing tip. Treatment is to warm the bird gently, encourage the bird to exercise the wings to encourage circulation, and a broad spectrum antibiotic.
http://www.ibr.org.uk/dirv3/page195.html
www.ukvet.co.uk/ukvet/articles/Exotics%20-%20Harris%20Hawks.pdf
Note: When using Aureomycin products to on your birds, you should skip any calcium supplements you have been giving.